Targeting InhA in Mycobacterium Tuberculosis:
Recent Advances and Novel Scaffolds
1Department of Pharmacognosy, Indubhai Patel College of Pharmacy and Research Centre,
Dharmaj, Gujarat, India.
2Research Scholar, Gujarat Technological University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
*Corresponding Author E-mail: nikunj20899@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health concern, especially with the rise of drug-resistant strains. The InhA enzyme, which is essential for the cell wall formation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, has become an important target for new drug discovery. In this review, studies from the last few years are summarized, focusing on about 26 newly developed InhA inhibitors. These compounds feature a variety of effective ring systems—including imidazoquinolines, coumarin-thiazoles, pyrrole-pyrimidines, thienopyridinones, oxadiazoles, and molecular hybrids—that play a key role in their antimycobacterial activity. Among them, three molecules 5a, NITD-916, and 3g showed the strongest activity, with the lowest MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) Value. These findings highlight the progress made in recent years and point to new promising leads for the development of future anti- tubercular agents.
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and stands as a significant contributor to global morbidity and mortality.1 The disease is spread through the inhalation of aerosolized droplets expelled by TB-infected individuals during coughing, sneezing, or spitting. TB is a preventable and curable disease, yet it is estimated that one-quarter of the global population has been infected with the TB bacteria.2 Individuals with weakened immune systems are more susceptible to TB infection compared to those with a healthy immune system.3
TB can be classified in different ways. Clinically, it is divided into pulmonary TB, which is infectious and affects the lungs, and extrapulmonary TB, which occurs outside the lung usually results from hematogenous dissemination. Sometimes infection directly extends from an adjacent organ.4,5 Based on infection status, TB is categorized as latent TB (state of persistent immune response to stimulation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens with no evidence of clinically manifest active TB.) or active TB (in the lungs or throat can be infectious). This means the germs can spread to other people. TB disease in other parts of the body, such as the kidney or spine, is usually not infectious.6,7
The history of TB stretches back thousands of years. Skeletal remains and Egyptian mummies provide evidence of TB infection in ancient civilizations.8 Tuberculosis was well known in classical Greece, where it was called phthisis.9 Hippocrates clearly recognized tuberculosis and understood its clinical presentation. “Phthisis makes its attacks chiefly between the age of eighteen and thirty-five,” he wrote in his aphorisms, clearly recognizing the predilection of young adults for active tuberculosis.10-12
Worldwide, TB is the 13th leading cause of death and the second leading infectious killer after COVID-19 (above HIV/AIDS). It is estimated that up to one third of population is infected with Mycobacterium. In 2020, an estimated 10 million people fell ill with tuberculosis (TB) worldwide including 5.6million men, 3.3 million women and 1.1million children which shows that TB is present in all age groups. Child and adolescent TB is often overlooked by health providers and can be difficult to diagnose and treat. In 2020, the 30 high TB burden countries accounted for 86% of new TB cases. Eight countries account for two thirds of the total, with India leading the count, followed by China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh and South Africa. Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR- TB) remains a public health crisis and a health security threat. Only about one in three people with drug resistant TB accessed treatment in 2020. Globally, TB incidence is falling at about 2% per year and between 2015 and 2020 the cumulative reduction was 11%. This was over halfway to the end TB strategy milestone of 20% reduction between 2015 and 2020. TB remains a leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. According to the WHO Global TB Report 2023, about 10.6 million people developed TB and 1.3 million people died in 2022.13 TB is more common in low- and middle-income countries, with high burdens reported in Africa and South-East Asia.13-14 Major risk factors include HIV co-infection, diabetes, malnutrition, smoking, and poverty.15-17
Tuberculosis spreads mainly through inhalation of airborne droplet nuclei from a person with active pulmonary or laryngeal TB.18 These particles, often less than 5µm, reach the alveoli where alveolar macrophages ingest the bacilli. Instead of being destroyed, Mycobacterium tuberculosis blocks phagolysosome fusion, neutralizes acidification, and uses secreted proteins to survive and replicate within macrophages. This triggers inflammatory pathways and cytokine release, which recruit more immune cells to the infection site.19 The immune response organizes into a granuloma, which walls off but does not eliminate the bacilli. Infection may remain latent or progress to active disease if immunity weakens.20 In active TB, granulomas may undergo necrosis and cavitation, releasing large numbers of bacilli into the airways for transmission.18-20 The bacilli can also spread through blood and lymph to sites such as lymph nodes, bones, kidneys, meninges, and pleura.18-20 Thus, TB pathophysiology reflects the balance between host immunity and bacterial persistence.20
Fig 1. Pathophysiology of TB.21
The treatment of tuberculosis (TB) was transformed after the discovery of streptomycin in 1943, and later by isoniazid and rifampicin.22-23 A major challenge in tuberculosis (TB) management is the resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to first-line drugs such as isoniazid (INH), rifampicin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide.14,24 INH is a prodrug that requires activation by the KatG enzyme to inhibit enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (InhA), a crucial enzyme of the fatty acid synthase-II (FAS-II) pathway responsible for mycolic acid biosynthesis.25 Mutations in KatG impair INH activation, leading to resistance.25 To overcome this, research has focused on direct InhA inhibitors that bypass KatG and selectively block the enzyme. Several scaffolds, including triclosan, diphenyl ethers, arylamides, pyrrolidines, and pyrimidines, have shown promise as InhA inhibitors.26-27
Chalcones, synthesized through aldol condensation, exhibit broad pharmacological activities such as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antifungal effects, with several derivatives also showing potent anti-TB activity.28 Pyrimidines represent another important class of antimicrobials, and isoniazid–pyrimidine conjugates have demonstrated strong antimycobacterial efficacy.29 Pyrroles and their derivatives, including LL3858 (Sudoterb), have shown significant antitubercular activity in preclinical studies.30 Recent strategies propose combining chalcone, pyrimidine, and pyrrole frameworks to design novel InhA inhibitors with enhanced potency.28-30 These advances highlight InhA inhibitors as a promising direction in overcoming drug-resistant TB.57-68
Brief information of recently synthesized compounds as InhA inhibitors:
Table 1. Reported InhA inhibitors and their anti-tubercular activities (MIC and IC₅₀ values).
|
Ref No. |
Code of Molecule |
Molecule Structure |
MIC Value (µg/mL) |
IC50 Value (µg/mL) |
|
1. |
ANA-12 |
|
6.25 |
170.5±7.64 |
|
2. |
[Ag (ECDPO2)] (NO2) |
|
0.39 |
- |
|
3. |
IPA-6 |
|
0.05 |
- |
|
4. |
Compound-12 |
|
6.25 |
- |
|
5. |
Compound-21 |
|
20 |
0.329 |
|
6. |
NITD-916 |
|
0.0249 |
- |
|
7. |
2b |
|
6 |
247.98 |
|
8. |
3g |
|
≤0.0396 |
- |
|
9. |
4c |
|
15 |
125 |
|
10. |
4f |
|
1.56 |
- |
|
11. |
4g |
|
0.78mg/mL |
49.44 mM |
|
12. |
4n |
|
≥40 |
|
|
13. |
5a |
|
0.0127 |
- |
|
14. |
5a |
|
- |
4.58 |
|
15. |
5b |
|
0.8 |
10.13 |
|
16. |
5f |
|
3 |
- |
|
17. |
5k |
|
12.5 |
200 |
|
18. |
5n |
|
12.5 |
16 |
|
19. |
6c |
|
0.5 |
- |
|
20. |
6q |
|
0.125 |
- |
|
21. |
7i |
|
0.78 |
- |
|
22. |
8b |
|
1 |
- |
|
23. |
8f |
|
0.48 |
0.288±0.001 |
|
24. |
8i |
|
6.25 |
218±0.1 |
|
25. |
8n |
|
0.209 |
- |
|
26. |
9e |
|
25 |
- |
CONCLUSION:
In this review, around twenty-Six recently reported InhA inhibitors were analyzed for their anti-tubercular potential. Among them, three compounds 5a(0.0127 µg/mL), NITD-916 (0.0249µg/mL), 3g(≤0.0396µg/mL) stood out by exhibiting the lowest MIC values, indicating superior inhibitory potency compared to other Reported compounds. These findings highlight the importance of optimized structural features in achieving strong anti-mycobacterial activity and suggest that these lead molecules hold promise for further development as next-generation anti- tubercular agents.
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Received on 15.09.2025 Revised on 25.09.2025 Accepted on 07.10.2025 Published on 06.11.2025 Available online from November 11, 2025 Asian J. Research Chem.2025; 18(6):378-384. DOI: 10.52711/0974-4150.2025.00058 ©A and V Publications All Right Reserved
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